This book is the first to bring together essential information on the application of ozone in food processing, providing an insight into the current state-of-the-art and reviewing established and emerging applications in food processing, preservation and waste management.

Contributors xi 1 Status and Trends of Ozone in Food Processing 1 Colm O’Donnell, B.K. Tiwari, P.J. Cullen and Rip G. Rice 1.1 Why ozone? 1 1.2 Drivers of ozone in the food industry 1 1.2.1 Regulation 1 1.2.2 Surface cleaning and disinfection 2 1.2.3 Food safety and shelf life extension 2 1.2.4 Nutrient and sensory aspects 3 1.2.5 Consumer and processor acceptability 3 1.2.6 Technology advances 3 1.2.7 Environmental impact 4 1.3 The hurdle concept 4 1.4 Challenges 5 1.5 Objective 5 References 5 2 Regulatory and Legislative Issues 7 B.K. Tiwari and Rip G. Rice 2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 History of ozone application and regulation 9 2.3 Ozone regulation 9 2.3.1 Overview of US regulations 9 2.3.2 Overview of European regulations 11 2.3.3 Overview of Canadian regulations 13 2.3.4 Overview of Australian and New Zealand regulations 15 2.3.5 Overview of Japanese regulations 15 2.4 Global harmonisation of food safety regulations 16 References 16 3 Chemical and Physical Properties of Ozone 19 Annel K. Greene, Zeynep B. Güzel-Seydim and Atıf Can Seydim 3.1 Introduction 19 3.2 The molecular structure of ozone 19 3.3 The chemical and physical properties of ozone 20 3.3.1 The chemical mechanisms of ozonation 22 3.3.2 Ozone reaction pathways in water 22 3.4 Ozone action on macromolecules 25 3.5 Mechanisms of microbial inactivation 26 3.6 Ozone reactions against virus 28 3.7 Ozone reaction on biofilms 29 Acknowledgments 29 References 29 4 Generation and Control of Ozone 33 Cameron Tapp and Rip G. Rice 4.1 Introduction 33 4.2 Ozone generation 33 4.2.1 Ozone generation by corona discharge (CD) 34 4.2.2 Ultraviolet (UV) (photochemical) ozone generation 36 4.3 Feed gas preparation systems 36 4.3.1 Need for feed gas treatment 36 4.3.2 Air preparation systems 37 4.3.3 Oxygen feed gas systems 39 4.4 Solubility of ozone in water 41 4.5 Contacting ozone with water: physical means of transferring ozone into water 44 4.5.1 Venturi injection method 44 4.5.2 Fine bubble diffuser method 46 4.6 Measuring and monitoring ozone in water 46 4.6.1 Colourimetric method 47 4.6.2 Electronic method – for dissolved ozone 47 4.6.3 Electronic method – for ORP 48 4.7 Measuring and monitoring ozone in air 48 4.7.1 Ozone measurement equipment for food processing plant air 49 4.8 Ozonation equipment for food storage rooms 50 4.9 Ozone generator output control 50 4.10 Some recent novel applications for ozone generation in food processing plants 51 4.11 Helpful calculations 53 4.11.1 Gallons per minute 53 4.11.2 Metric equivalent 53 References 53 5 Ozone in Fruit and Vegetable Processing 55 B.K. Tiwari and K. Muthukumarappan 5.1 Introduction 55 5.2 Applications in fruit and vegetable processing 56 5.2.1 Surface decontamination 56 5.2.2 Storage in ozone-rich atmospheres 61 5.2.3 Ozone in fruit and vegetable juice processing 65 5.3 Efficacy of ozone 65 5.4 Synergistic effects with ozone 68 5.5 Effect of ozone on product quality and nutrition 69 5.5.1 Chemical attributes 69 5.5.2 Visual quality 70 5.5.3 Texture 72 5.5.4 Sensory quality 73 5.6 Conclusion 74 References 74 6 Ozone in Grain Processing 81 V. Lullien-Pellerin 6.1 Introduction 81 6.2 Ozone application in grain storage and effects on grain components 82 6.2.1 Insect control 82 6.2.2 Microorganism control 84 6.2.3 Reduction of toxic chemical levels 86 6.2.4 Effects of ozone on grain components, metabolism and physiological status 88 6.3 Effects of ozone on grain processing, flour and product quality 90 6.4 Industrial applications and scale-up 93 6.5 Conclusions 95 Acknowledgments 96 References 96 7 Ozonation of Hydrocolloids 103 Joan M. King, Hee-Jung An, Seung-wook Seo and Alfredo Prudente 7.1 Introduction 103 7.2 Application of ozone in hydrocolloid processing 104 7.2.1 Starch 104 7.2.2 Chitosan 105 7.2.3 Gelatin 107 7.2.4 Other hydrocolloids 108 7.3 Effects of ozone on the physiochemical properties of hydrocolloids 108 7.3.1 Structural composition 108 7.3.2 Swelling power 109 7.3.3 Molecular weight 110 7.3.4 Viscosity 111 7.3.5 Thermal properties 115 7.4 Mechanism and structural effects of ozone action on hydrocolloids 115 References 118 8 Ozone in Meat Processing 123 Fred W. Pohlman 8.1 Introduction 123 8.2 Application of ozone in meat processing 125 8.2.1 Surface decontamination of red meat 125 8.2.2 Surface decontamination of poultry 128 8.2.3 Other meat applications 129 8.3 Effect on meat quality 130 References 133 9 Ozone in Seafood Processing 137 Shigezou Naito 9.1 Introduction 137 9.2 Application of ozone in fish and storage of processed seafood products 138 9.2.1 Fresh fish and seafood 138 9.2.2 Dried and smoked products 145 9.3 Application of ozone in seafood plant sanitation 149 9.4 Effects of ozone on microbial safety 153 9.5 Effects of ozone on fish and seafood quality and shelf life 155 9.6 Current status and future trends for ozone and seafood 157 References 160 10 Ozone Sanitisation in the Food Industry 163 P.J. Cullen and Tomás Norton 10.1 Introduction 163 10.2 Ozone as a sanitising agent 165 10.3 Health and safety issues 168 10.4 Using ozone in industrial cleaning procedures 168 10.5 Ozone applications in food processing 170 10.5.1 Dairy industry 170 10.5.2 Wine industry 172 10.5.3 Brewing industry 173 References 174 11 Ozone for Water Treatment and its Potential for Process Water Reuse in the Food Industry 177 Tomás Norton and Paula Misiewicz Nomenclature 177 11.1 Introduction 177 11.2 Water in the food industry 179 11.2.1 Fresh produce processing 180 11.2.2 Dairy processing 181 11.2.3 Meat and poultry processing 185 11.3 Ozonation as a water treatment process 185 11.4 The kinetics of ozonation 187 11.4.1 The kinetics of mass transfer 188 11.4.2 Determining the chemical reaction kinetics 189 11.4.3 Hydrodynamics 191 11.4.4 Applications of hydrodynamic modelling to investigate ozone water treatment 193 11.5 Conclusion 195 References 195 12 Ozone for Food Waste and Odour Treatment 201 Ioannis S. Arvanitoyannis 12.1 Introduction 201 12.2 Application of ozonation to waste treatment 205 12.2.1 Wastewater of plant origin 205 12.2.2 Wastewater of animal origin 209 12.3 Application of ozonation to odour removal 211 12.3.1 Odours originating from food industry processes 213 12.3.2 Odours originating from agricultural operations 213 12.4 Conclusions 216 References 216 13 Efficacy of Ozone on Pesticide Residues 223 Gilbert Y.S. Chan and J.G. Wu 13.1 Introduction 223 13.2 Types of pesticides 225 13.3 Fates of pesticides 225 13.3.1 Degradation processes of pesticides 225 13.3.2 Ozonation of pesticides 227 13.4 Degradation mechanisms 227 13.4.1 Kinetics 227 13.4.2 Intermediates and oxidation products 229 13.5 Ozone application for pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables 231 13.6 Current status and opportunities 234 13.6.1 Ozone concentrations 234 13.6.2 Physical nature of plants affects degradation efficacy 235 13.6.3 Future trends 235 References 236 14 Modelling Approaches for Ozone Processing 241 Vasilis P. Valdramidis, P.J. Cullen and B.K. Tiwari Nomenclature 241 14.1 Introduction 242 14.2 Modelling approaches for microbial inactivation 242 14.3 Chemical reaction kinetics 250 14.4 Modelling ozonation processes 255 14.4.1 Modelling ozone bubble columns 255 14.4.2 Overall mass transfer coefficient 257 14.5 Conclusions 259 References 259 15 Health and Safety Aspects of Ozone Processing 265 Rip G. Rice 15.1 Introduction 265 15.2 Points of application of ozone during food processing 266 15.2.1 Aqueous phase ozone applications 266 15.2.2 Gas phase ozone applications 267 15.3 Health and safety issues with ozone for food plant workers 267 15.3.1 Ozone exposure regulations 267 15.3.2 Potential fire hazards from high-purity oxygen use 271 15.3.3 Safety history of ozone in commercial/industrial applications 272 15.4 Avoiding worker exposure to ozone in food processing plants 273 15.4.1 General considerations 273 15.4.2 Specific plant safety measures 274 15.4.3 Controlling off-gas ozone at Fresher Than Fresh fish processing/packaging plant 275 15.4.4 Third-party evaluation of aqueous ozone spray wash equipment 277 15.5 Safety of foods processed with ozone 280 15.5.1 Nutrient impacts of ozone contact with foods 280 15.5.2 Impacts of ozone processing of foods on vitamin contents 281 15.5.3 Impacts of ozone processing of foods on protein contents 282 15.5.4 Impacts of ozone processing of foods on lipid contents 283 15.5.5 Toxicology aspects of ozone processing of foods 283 15.6 Conclusions 285 Acknowledgments 286 References 286 Index 289 A colour plate section falls between pages 180 and 181

The food industry is constantly challenged to provide healthy, minimally processed products that have an extended shelf life and are safe to eat. In response to consumer demands for ‘greener’ food additives, industry interest in ozone has increased in recent years. Excess ozone rapidly autodecomposes to produce oxygen and thus it leaves no residues in food. Ozone is increasingly accepted as an environmentally friendly technology. Ozone was affirmed to be Generally Recognised As Safe (GRAS) in contact with foodstuffs by a panel of food experts convened by the Electric Power Research Institute in 1996 and was subsequently approved as an Antimicrobial Agent in direct contact with foods of all types by the US Food and Drug Administration in 2001. In Ozone in Food Processing, the authors provide a comprehensive overview of ozone processing in the food industry, examining its applications across various food groups, including evaluations of the impacts on product quality and safety. The authors also address global regulatory and legislative requirements for ozone processing, and provide recommendations and opportunities for various health and safety-related issues, suggesting new applications for ozone processing in the food industry. Ozone in Food Processing is the first book to comprehensively review the theory and application of ozone in food processing, providing an insight into the current state-of-the-art applications as well as reviewing established and emerging applications in food processing, preservation and waste management. This book will be of interest to food scientists, engineers and microbiologists working in food processing, as well as academic researchers and lecturers in the subject area.