Preface xxiv Acknowledgments xxvii 23 Pressure Relieving Devices and Emergency Relief System Design 1 23.0 Introduction 1 23.1 Types of Positive Pressure Relieving Devices (See Manufacturers’ Catalogs for Design Details) 2 23.2 Types of Valves/Relief Devices 6 Conventional Safety Relief Valve 6 Balanced Safety Relief Valve 7 Special Valves 7 Rupture Disk 7 Example 23.1 15 23.3 Materials of Construction 18 Safety and Relief Valves: Pressure-Vacuum Relief Values 18 Rupture Disks 19 23.4 General Code Requirements [1] 20 23.5 Relief Mechanisms 20 Reclosing Devices, Spring Loaded 20 Non-Reclosing Pressure Relieving Devices 21 23.6 Pressure Settings and Design Basis 21 23.7 Unfired Pressure Vessels Only, But Not Fired or Unfired Steam Boilers 24 Non-Fire Exposure 24 External Fire or Heat Exposure Only and Process Relief 24 23.8 Relieving Capacity of Combinations of Safety Relief Valves and Rupture Disks or Non-Reclosure Devices (Reference ASME Code, Par. UG-127, U-132) 24 Primary Relief 24 Rupture Disk Devices, [44] Par UG-127 25 Footnotes to ASME Code 26 23.9 Establishing Relieving or Set Pressures 27 Safety and Safety Relief Valves for Steam Service 28 23.10 Selection and Application 28 Causes of System Overpressure 28 23.11 Capacity Requirements Evaluation for Process Operation (Non-Fire) 29 Installation 34 23.12 Piping Design 37 Pressure Drops 37 Line Sizing 37 23.13 Selection Features: Safety, Safety-Relief Valves, and Rupture Disks 44 23.14 Calculations of Relieving Areas: Safety and Relief Valves 46 23.15 Standard Pressure Relief Valves Relief Area Discharge Openings 46 23.16 Sizing Safety Relief Type Devices for Required Flow Area at Time of Relief 47 23.17 Effects of Two-Phase Vapor-Liquid Mixture on Relief Valve Capacity 47 23.18 Sizing for Gases or Vapors or Liquids for Conventional Valves with Constant Backpressure Only 47 Procedure 48 Establish Critical Flow for Gases and Vapors 48 Example 23.2: Flow through Sharp Edged Vent Orifice (Adapted after [41]) 54 23.19 Orifice Area Calculations [42] 54 23.20 Sizing Valves for Liquid Relief: Pressure-Relief Valves Requiring Capacity Certification [5D] 60 23.21 Sizing Valves For Liquid Relief: Pressure Relief Valves Not Requiring Capacity Certification [5D] 61 23.22 Reaction Forces 66 Example 23.3 67 Solution 67 Example 23.4 69 Solution 70 23.23 Calculations of Orifice Flow Area using Pressure Relieving Balanced Bellows Valves, with Variable or Constant Backpressure 72 23.24 Sizing Valves for Liquid Expansion (Hydraulic Expansion of Liquid Filled Systems/ Equipment/Piping) 80 23.25 Sizing Valves for Subcritical Flow: Gas or Vapor But Not Steam [5d] 81 23.26 Emergency Pressure Relief: Fires and Explosions Rupture Disks 84 23.27 External Fires 84 23.28 Set Pressures for External Fires 85 23.29 Heat Absorbed 85 The Severe Case 85 23.30 Surface Area Exposed to Fire 86 23.31 Relief Capacity for Fire Exposure 87 23.32 Code Requirements for External Fire Conditions 87 23.33 Design Procedure 88 Example 23.5 88 Solution 88 23.34 Pressure Relief Valve Orifice Areas on Vessels Containing Only Gas, Unwetted Surface 92 23.35 Rupture Disk Sizing Design and Specification 93 23.36 Specifications to Manufacturer 93 23.37 Size Selection 94 23.38 Calculation of Relieving Areas: Rupture Disks for Non-Explosive Service 94 23.39 The Manufacturing Range (MR) 95 23.40 Selection of Burst Pressure for Disk, P b (Table 23.3) 95 Example 23.6: Rupture Disk Selection 98 23.41 Effects of Temperature on Disk 98 23.42 Rupture Disk Assembly Pressure Drop 101 23.43 Gases and Vapors: Rupture Disks [5a, Par, 4.8] 101 Volumetric Flow: scfm Standard Conditions (1.4.7 psia and 60°F) 102 Steam: Rupture Disk Sonic Flow; Critical Pressure = 0.55 and P 2 /p 1 is Less Than Critical Pressure Ratio of 0.55 103 23.44 API for Subsonic Flow: Gas or Vapor (Not Steam) 103 23.45 Liquids: Rupture Disk 104 23.46 Sizing for Combination of Rupture Disk and Pressure Relief Valve in Series Combination 105 Example 23.7: Safety Relief Valve for Process Overpressure 106 Example 23.8: Rupture Disk External Fire Condition 106 Solution 107 Heat Input 107 Total Heat Input (from Figure 23.30a) 107 Quantity of Vapor Released 107 Critical Flow Pressure 107 Disk Area 108 Example 23.9: Rupture Disk for Vapors or Gases; Non-Fire Condition 108 Solution 108 Example 23.10: Liquids Rupture Disk 109 Example 23.11: Liquid Overpressure, Figure 23.34 110 23.47 Pressure-Vacuum Relief for Low-Pressure Storage Tanks 110 23.48 Basic Venting For Low-Pressure Storage Vessels 111 23.49 Non-Refrigerated Above Ground Tanks; API-Std. 2000 112 23.50 Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosions (BLEVEs) 113 Ignition of Flammable Mixtures 116 23.51 Managing Runaway Reactions 116 Hydroprocessing Units 117 Acid/Base Reactions 118 Methanation 118 Alkylation Unit Acid Runaway 118 23.51.1 Runaway Reactions: DIERS 118 23.52 Hazard Evaluation in the Chemical Process Industries 120 23.53 Hazard Assessment Procedures 121 Exotherms 122 Accumulation 122 23.54 Thermal Runaway Chemical Reaction Hazards 122 Heat Consumed Heating the Vessel. The ɸ-Factor 123 Onset Temperature 124 Time-To-Maximum Rate 125 Maximum Reaction Temperature 125 Vent Sizing Package (VSP) 126 Vent Sizing Package 2 TM (VSP2 TM) 127 Advanced Reactive System Screening Tool (ARSST) 128 23.55 Two-Phase Flow Relief Sizing for Runaway Reaction 128 Runaway Reactions 131 Vapor Pressure Systems 132 Gassy Systems 132 Hybrid Systems 132 Simplified Nomograph Method 134 Vent Sizing Methods 138 Vapor Pressure Systems 138 Fauske’s Method 140 Gassy Systems 142 Homogeneous Two-Phase Venting Until Disengagement 143 Two-Phase Flow Through an Orifice 144 Conditions of Use 145 23.56 Discharge System 145 Design of The Vent Pipe 145 Safe Discharge 146 Direct Discharge to The Atmosphere 147 Example 23.12 147 Tempered Reaction 147 Solution 147 Example 23.13 149 Solution 149 Example 23.14 150 Solution 151 Example 23.15 152 Solution 152 DIERS Final Reports 155 23.57 Sizing for Two-Phase Fluids 155 Example 23.16 161 Solution 162 Example 23.17 164 Solution 164 Example 23.18 172 Example 23.19 177 Solution 178 Type 3 Integral Method [5] 179 Example 23.20 [76] 180 Solution 181 23.58 Flares/Flare Stacks 182 Flares 184 Sizing 184 Flame Length [5c] 186 Flame Distortion [5c] Caused by Wind Velocity 187 Flare Stack Height 189 Flaring Toxic Gases 194 Purging of Flare Stacks and Vessels/Piping 195 Pressure Purging 195 Example 23.21: Purge Vessel by Pressurization Following the Method of [41] 195 23.59 Compressible Flow for Discharge Piping 197 Design Equations for Compressible Fluid Flow for Discharge Piping 197 Critical Pressure, P crit 200 Compressibility Factor Z 201 Friction factor, f 202 Discharge Line Sizing 203 23.60 Vent Piping 204 Discharge Reactive Force 204 Example 23.22 205 Solution 206 Example 23.23: Flare and Relief Blowdon System 208 Solution 208 A Rapid Solution for Sizing Depressuring Lines [5c] 208 Codes and Standards 212 Discharge Locations 213 Process Safety Incidents with Relief Valve Failures and Flarestacks 214 A Case Study on Williams Geismar Olefins Plant, Geismar, Louisiana [95] 214 Process Flow of the Olefins 214 The Incident 216 Technical Analysis 219 Key Lessons 222 Explosions in Flarestacks 225 Relief Valves 227 Location 228 Relief Valve Registers 228 Relief Valve Faults [92] 229 Tailpipes [92] 230 GLOSSARY 230 Acronyms and Abbreviations 239 Nomenclature 240 Subscripts 244 Greek Symbols 244 References 245 World Wide Web on Two-Phase Relief Systems 247 24 Process Safety and Energy Management in Petroleum Refinery 249 24.1 Introduction 249 24.2 Process Safety 250 24.2.1 Process Safety Information 253 24.2.2 Conduct of Operations (COO) and Operational Discipline (OD) 254 Process Safety Culture: BP Refinery Explosion, Texas City, 2005 257 Detailed Description 257 Causes 258 Key Lessons 260 Process Safety Culture 260 Selected CSB Findings 260 Selected Baker Panel Finding 261 Process Knowledge Management 261 Training and Performance Assurance 261 Management of Change (MOC) 261 Asset Integrity and Reliability 261 24.2.3 Process Hazard Analysis 262 Safe Operating Limits 263 Impact on Other Process Safety Elements 264 24.3 General Process Safety Hazards in a Refinery 265 Desalters 266 Critical Operating Parameters Impacting Process Safety 266 The Quality of Aqueous Effluent from Desalters 267 Desalter Water Supply 267 Vibration within Relief Valve (RV) Pipework 267 Example of Process Safety Incidents and Hazards 267 Hydrotreating [2] 267 24.4 Example of Process Safety Incidents and Hazards 267 Catalytic Cracking [2] 270 24.5 Process Safety Hazards 270 Reforming 271 Alkylation [2] 271 Hydrotreating Units 271 24.5.1 Examples of Process Safety Incidents and Hazards 272 HF release, Texas City, TX, 1987 [2] 272 HF release, Corpus Christi, TX, 2009 272 HF release at Philadelphia Energy Solutions Refining and Marketing LLC (PES), Philadelphia 2019 273 Post-Incident Activities 276 Coking [2] 277 Equilon Anacortes Refinery Coking Plant Accident, 1998 277 Design Considerations 278 24.6 Hazards Relating to Equipment Failure 278 24.7 Columns and Other Process Pressure Vessels and Piping 279 Corrosion 279 Corrosion Inhibitors 280 24.8 Inadequate Design and Construction 290 Corrosion within “dead legs” 290 24.9 Inadequate Material of Construction Specification 290 24.10 Material Failures and Process Safety Prevention Programs 291 Piping Repair Incident at Tosco Avon Refinery, CA, USA 291 Lessons Learned from this accident 297 24.11 Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP) 297 Study Co-ordination 303 24.11.1 HAZOP Documentation Requirements 303 24.11.2 The Basic Concept of HAZOP 304 24.11.3 Division into Sections 304 Use of Guidewords 304 24.11.4 Conducting a HAZOP Study 305 Define Objective and Scope 306 Prepare for the Study 307 Record the Results 307 24.11.5 Hazop Case Study [8] 307 24.11.6 HAZOP of a Batch Process 308 Limitations of HAZOP Studies 315 Conclusions 315 24.12 Hazan 315 24.13 Fault Tree Analysis 317 24.14 Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) 318 Methodology of FMEA 318 Definition of System to be Evaluated 318 Level of Analysis 318 Analysis of Failures 318 24.15 The Swiss Cheese Model 319 24.16 Bowtie Analysis 320 Validity Rules for Barriers 320 Example 322 Process Safety Isolation Practices in Petroleum Refinery and Chemical Process Industries 322 24.17 Inherently Safer Plant Design 325 Inherently Safer Plant Design in Reactor Systems 327 24.18 Energy Management in Petroleum Refinery 330 Total cost of energy 331 Energy Policy 331 Crude Distillation Unit 332 Heat Exchangers 332 Steam Traps 333 Optimization of Refinery Steam/Power System 333 Reducing fouling/surface cleaning/surface coating in heat exchanger/furnace 333 Pumping System 333 Electric Drives 334 Furnace System 334 Compressed Air 335 Flare System 335 24.18.1 Environmental Impact of Flaring 336 24.18.2 Environmental Impact of Petroleum Industry 337 24.18.3 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 339 24.18.4 Pollution Control Strategies in Petroleum Refinery 340 24.18.5 Energy Management and Co2 Emissions in Refinery 345 24.19 Benchmarking in Refinery 345 Glossary 346 Acronyms and Abbreviations 354 References 354 25 Product Blending 357 25.0 Introduction 357 25.1 Blending Processes 360 25.1.1 Gasoline Blending 361 25.2 Ternary Diagram of Crude Oils 361 25.2.1 Elemental Analysis and Ternary Classification of Crude Oils 361 25.2.2 Reading a Ternary Diagram 363 Solution 364 Example 25.1 364 References 464 Bibliography 466 26 Cost Estimation and Economic Evaluation 467 26.1 Introduction 467 26.2 Refinery Operating Cost 468 26.2.1 Theoretical Sales Realization Valuation Method 470 Example 26.14 538 Solution 538 Product Quality 539 Standard Density 539 Blending Components 539 Constraining Properties 539 Quality Premiums/Discounts 539 A Case Study [44] 540 Problem Statement 540 Process Description 542 Catalytic Reformer 542 Naphtha Desulfurizer 544 Summary of Investment and Utilities Costs 545 Calculation of Direct Annual Operating Costs 545 On-Stream Time 546 Water Makeup 546 Power 546 Fuel 546 Royalties 547 Catalyst Consumption 548 Insurance 548 Local Taxes 548 Maintenance 548 Miscellaneous Supplies 548 Plant Staff and Operators 548 Calculations of Income before Income Tax 549 Summary of Direct Annual Operating Costs 549 Calculation of ROI 550 Carbon footprint 558 Global Warming Potential (GWP) 558 An Improved Method of Using GWPs 560 Solution 562 Carbon Dioxide Equivalent 565 Carbon Credit 566 Carbon Offset 566 Carbon Price 567 Nomenclature 567 References 568 Bibliography 569 27 Sustainability in Engineering, Petroleum Refining and Alternative Fuels 571 27.0 Introduction 571 27.1 Impacts on the Overall Greenhouse Effect 576 27.2 Carbon Capture and Storage in Refineries 578 27.3 Sustainability in the Refinery Industries 580 27.4 Sustainability in Engineering Design Principles 582 27.5 Alternative Fuels (Biofuels) 587 27.6 Process Intensification (PI) in Biodiesel 589 27.7 Biofuel from Green Diesel 592 Analysis 592 Processing of Biodiesel 592 27.7.1 Specifications of Biodiesel 596 Advantages 597 Disadvantages 597 27.7.2 Bioethanol 597 27.7.3 Biodiesel Production 601 Application 601 Process 602 Reaction Chemistry 603 Economics 603 27.7.4 An Alternative Process of Manufacturing Biodiesel 604 Reaction Chemistry 607 27.7.5 Biofuel from Algae 607 27.7.6 Economic Viability of Algae 608 27.8 Fast Pyrolysis 609 27.8.1 Fast Pyrolysis Principle 609 27.8.2 Fast Pyrolysis Technologies 610 27.8.3 Minerals of Biomass 611 27.8.4 Applications of Fast Pyrolysis Liquid 611 Heat and Power 611 27.8.5 Chemicals and Materials 613 27.8.6 Bio-Fuels-Fast Pyrolysis Bio-Oil (FPBO) from Biomass Residues 613 Feedstocks 614 27.8.7 Properties of Pyrolysis Oil 615 Main advantages 616 27.9 Acid Gas Removal 617 Chemical Solvent Processes 617 Physical Solvent Processes 617 27.9.1 Process Description of Amine Gas Treating 618 Chemical Reactions 618 For hydrogen sulfide H2 S removal: 618 For carbon dioxide (CO2) removal 618 Amines Used [48] 621 27.9.2 Equilibrium Data for Amine–Sour Gas Systems 625 27.9.3 Emerging Technologies [48] 625 Chemistry 627 27.9.4 Advanced Amine Based Solvents 627 Chemistry 628 Disadvantages of Amine Solvents 628 27.10 Alkaline Salt Process (Hot Carbonate) 629 Split Flow Process of Potassium Carbonate Process 630 Two Stage Process 630 27.11 Ionic Liquids 632 Disadvantages 632 Viscosity 633 Tunability 633 Design Suite R470 Technology) 634 Learning Objectives 634 Building the Simulation 636 Defining the Simulation Basis 636 Amines Property Package 636 Column Overview 636 Contactor 636 Adding the Basics 636 Adding the feed streams 636 Physical Unit Operations 638 Separator Operation 638 Contactor Operation 639 Valve Operation 641 Separator Operation 641 Heat Exchanger Operation 642 Regenerator Operation 643 Mixer Operation 644 Cooler Operation 646 Pump Operation 646 Adding Logical Unit Operations 647 Set Operation 647 Recycle Operation 648 Save your case 649 Analyzing the Results 649 Systems Thinking 657 Global Mechanisms 657 Best Available Techniques 657 Innovation 657 27.29 Conclusions 722 Glossary 723 References 729 Bibliography 732 Appendix D 733 Glossary of Petroleum and Petrochemical Technical Terminologies 809 About the Author 937 Index 939

With no new refineries having been built in decades, companies continue to build onto or reverse engineer and re-tool existing refineries. With so many changes in the last few years alone, books like this are very much in need. There is truly a renaissance for chemical and process engineering going on right now across multiple industries. This fifth and final volume in the “Petroleum Refining Design and Applications Handbook” set, this book continues the most up-to-date and comprehensive coverage of the most significant and recent changes to petroleum refining, presenting the state-of-the-art to the engineer, scientist, or student. Besides the list below, this groundbreaking new volume describes blending of products from the refinery, applying the ternary diagrams and classifications of crude oils, flash point blending, pour point blending, aniline point blending, smoke point and viscosity blending, cetane and diesel indices. The volume further reviews refinery operational cost, cost allocation of actual usage, project and economic evaluation involving cost estimation, cash flow involving return on investment, net present values, discounted cash flow rate of return, net present values, payback period, inflation and sensitivity analysis, and so on. It reviews global effects on the refining economy, carbon tax, carbon foot print, global warming potential, carbon dioxide equivalent, carbon credit, carbon offset, carbon price, and so on. It reviews sustainability in petroleum refining and alternative fuels (biofuels and so on), impact of the overall greenhouse effects, carbon capture and storage in refineries, process intensification in biodiesel, biofuel from green diesel, acid-gas removal and emerging technologies, carbon capture and storage, gas heated reformer unit, pressure swing adsorption process, steam methane reforming for fuel cells, grey, blue and green hydrogen production, new technologies for carbon capture and storage, carbon clean process design, refinery of the future, refining and petrochemical industry characteristics. The text is packed with Excel spreadsheet calculations and Honeywell UniSim Design software in some examples, and it includes an invaluable glossary of petroleum and petrochemical technical terminologies. Useful as a textbook, this is also an excellent, handy go-to reference for the veteran engineer, a volume no chemical or process engineering library should be without. Written by one of the world’s foremost authorities, this book sets the standard for the industry and is an integral part of the petroleum refining renaissance. It is truly a must-have for any practicing engineer or student in this area.