Preface xiv Part 1: Synthesis Gas Production 1 1 Energy Sources and Energy Supply 3 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Typical Energy Sources 6 1.2.1 Natural Gas and Natural Gas Hydrates 6 1.2.2 The Crude Oil Family 7 1.2.3 Extra Heavy Crude Oil and Tar Sand Bitumen 10 1.3 Other Energy Sources 11 1.3.1 Coal 12 1.3.2 Oil Shale 14 1.3.3 Biomass 16 1.3.4 Solid Waste 19 1.4 Energy Supply 22 1.4.1 Economic Factors 22 1.4.2 Geopolitical Factors 22 1.4.3 Physical Factors 23 1.4.4 Technological Factors 24 1.5 Energy Independence 25 References 29 2 Overview of Gasification 35 2.1 Introduction 35 2.2 Gasification Processes 38 2.2.1 Processes 40 2.3 Feedstocks 41 2.3.1 Influence of Feedstock Quality 48 2.3.2 Feedstock Preparation 50 2.3.2.1 Crushing/Sizing/Drying 51 2.3.2.2 Pelletizing and Briquetting 51 2.4 Power Generation 52 2.5 Synthetic-Fuel Production 53 2.5.1 Gaseous Products 54 2.5.1.1 Synthesis Gas 54 2.5.1.2 Low Btu Gas 55 2.5.1.3 Medium Btu Gas 55 2.5.1.4 High Heat-Content Gas 56 2.5.2 Liquid Fuels 56 2.5.3 Tar 57 2.6 Advantages and Limitations 58 2.7 Market Developments and Outlook 60 References 62 3 Gasifier Types- Designs and Engineering 67 3.1 Introduction 67 3.2 Gasifier Types 68 3.2.1 Fixed Bed Gasifier 72 3.2.2 Fluid Bed Gasifier 75 3.2.3 Entrained Bed Gasifier 78 3.2.4 Molten Salt Gasifier 79 3.2.5 Plasma Gasifier 80 3.2.6 Slagging Gasifier 82 3.2.7 Other Types 83 3.3 Designs 83 3.3.1 General Design Aspects 84 3.3.2 Chemical and Physical Aspects 85 3.3.2.1 Chemical Aspects 85 3.3.2.2 Influence of Feedstock Quality 86 3.3.2.3 Mineral Matter Content 88 3.3.2.4 Mixed Feedstocks 89 3.3.2.5 Moisture Content 89 3.3.3 Physical Effects 90 3.3.3.1 Bulk Density 90 3.3.3.2 Char Gasification 90 3.3.3.3 Devolatilization and Volatile Matter Production 91 3.3.3.4 Particle Size and Distribution 92 3.4 Mechanism 92 3.4.1 Primary Gasification 93 3.4.2 Secondary Gasification 93 3.4.3 Hydrogasification 94 3.4.4 Catalytic Gasification 95 3.5 Energy Balance 96 3.6 Gasifier-Feedstock Compatibility 97 3.6.1 Feedstock Reactivity 97 3.6.2 Energy Content 98 3.7 Products 99 3.7.1 Gases 100 3.7.2 Tar 102 References 103 4 Chemistry, Thermodynamics, and Kinetics 107 4.1 Introduction 107 4.2 Chemistry 108 4.2.1 Pretreatment 109 4.2.2 Gasification Reactions 110 4.2.2.1 Primary Gasification 113 4.2.2.2 Secondary Gasification 114 4.2.2.3 Water Gas Shift Reaction 117 4.2.2.4 Carbon Dioxide Gasification 118 4.2.2.5 Hydrogasification 119 4.2.2.6 Methanation 120 4.2.2.7 Catalytic Gasification 121 4.2.2.8 Effect of Process Parameters 122 4.2.3 Physical Effects 122 4.3 Thermodynamics and Kinetics 124 4.3.1 Thermodynamics 126 4.3.2 Kinetics 127 4.4 Products 128 4.4.1 Gaseous Products 131 4.4.1.1 Low Btu Gas 132 4.4.1.2 Medium Btu Gas 133 4.4.1.3 High Btu Gas 134 4.4.1.4 Synthesis Gas 134 4.4.2 Liquid Products 135 4.4.3 Tar 136 4.4.4 Soot 136 4.4.5 Char 137 4.4.6 Slag 138 References 138 Part 2: Process Feedstocks 141 5 Coal Gasification 143 5.1 Introduction 143 5.2 Coal Types and Reactions 147 5.2.1 Types 148 5.2.2 Reactions 149 5.2.3 Properties 151 5.3 Processes 152 5.3.1 Coal Devolatilization 154 5.3.2 Char Gasification 154 5.3.3 Gasification Chemistry 155 5.3.4 Other Process Options 156 5.3.4.1 Hydrogasification 157 5.3.4.2 Catalytic Gasification 157 5.3.4.3 Plasma Gasification 158 5.3.5 Process Optimization 158 5.4 Product Quality 160 5.4.1 Low Btu Gas 160 5.4.2 Medium Btu Gas 161 5.4.3 High Btu Gas 161 5.4.4 Methane 162 5.4.5 Hydrogen 162 5.4.6 Other Products 163 5.5 Chemicals Production 164 5.5.1 Coal Tar Chemicals 164 5.5.2 Fischer-Tropsch Chemicals 166 5.5.2.1 Fischer-Tropsch Catalysts 167 5.5.2.2 Product Distribution 168 5.6 Advantages and Limitations 168 References 169 6 Gasification of Viscous Feedstock 173 6.1 Introduction 173 6.2 Viscous Feedstocks 177 6.2.1 Crude Oil Resids 178 6.2.2 Heavy Crude Oil 180 6.2.3 Extra Heavy Crude Oil 180 6.2.4 Tar Sand Bitumen 181 6.2.5 Other Feedstocks 182 6.2.5.1 Crude Oil Coke 183 6.2.5.2 Solvent Deasphalter Bottoms 185 6.2.5.3 Asphalt, Tar, and Pitch 187 6.3 Gas Production 188 6.3.1 Partial Oxidation Technology 189 6.3.1.1 Shell Gasification Process 191 6.3.1.2 Texaco Process 191 6.3.1.3 Phillips Process 192 6.3.2 Catalytic Partial Oxidation 192 6.4 Products 193 6.4.1 Gas Purification and Quality 194 6.4.2 Process Optimization 195 6.5 Advantages and Limitations 195 References 198 7 Gasification of Biomass 201 7.1 Introduction 201 7.2 Biomass Types and Mixed Feedstocks 205 7.2.1 Biomass 205 7.2.2 Black Liquor 209 7.2.3 Mixed Feedstocks 210 7.2.3.1 Biomass with Coal 211 7.2.3.2 Biomass with Waste 213 7.3 Chemistry 214 7.3.1 General Aspects 215 7.3.2 Reactions 218 7.3.2.1 Water Gas Shift Reaction 222 7.3.2.2 Carbon Dioxide Gasification 222 7.3.2.3 Hydrogasification 223 7.3.2.4 Methanation 224 7.4 Gasification Processes 225 7.4.1 Gasifiers 226 7.4.2 Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis 231 7.5 Gas Production and Products 232 7.5.1 Gas Production 233 7.5.2 Products 234 7.5.2.1 Synthesis Gas 235 7.5.2.2 Low-Btu Gas 236 7.5.2.3 Medium-Btu Gas 237 7.5.2.4 High-Btu Gas 237 7.5.3 Liquid Products 238 7.5.4 Solid Products 239 7.6 The Future 240 References 243 8 Gasification of Waste 249 8.1 Introduction 249 8.2 Waste Types 251 8.2.1 Solid Waste 251 8.2.2 Municipal Solid Waste 252 8.2.3 Industrial Solid Waste 253 8.2.4 Biosolids 254 8.2.5 Biomedical Waste 254 8.2.6 Mixed Feedstocks 255 8.3 Feedstock Properties and Plant Safety 255 8.4 Fuel Production 256 8.4.1 Pre-Processing 257 8.4.2 Gasifier Types 259 8.4.2.1 Counter-Current Fixed Bed Gasifier 259 8.4.2.2 Co-Current Fixed Bed Gasifier 259 8.4.2.3 Fluidized Bed Gasifier 260 8.4.2.4 Entrained Flow Gasifier 260 8.4.2.5 Other Types 261 8.4.3 Process Design 262 8.4.4 Plasma Gasification 263 8.5 Process Products 264 8.5.1 Synthesis Gas 264 8.5.2 Carbon Dioxide 265 8.5.3 Tar 265 8.5.4 Particulate Matter 267 8.5.5 Halogens/Acid Gases 267 8.5.6 Heavy Metals 268 8.5.7 Alkalis 269 8.5.8 Slag 269 8.6 Advantages and Limitation 270 References 271 9 Gas Cleaning 275 9.1 Introduction 275 9.2 Gas Streams 277 9.3 Water Removal 282 9.3.1 Absorption 282 9.3.2 Adsorption 283 9.3.3 Cryogenics 285 9.4 Acid Gas Removal 285 9.4.1 Adsorption 287 9.4.2 Absorption 288 9.4.3 Chemisorption 289 9.4.4 Other Processes 294 9.5 Removal of Condensable Hydrocarbons 297 9.5.1 Extraction 299 9.5.2 Absorption 300 9.5.3 Fractionation 300 9.5.4 Enrichment 301 9.6 Tar Removal 302 9.6.1 Physical Methods 302 9.6.2 Thermal Methods 304 9.7 Particulate Matter Removal 304 9.7.1 Cyclones 304 9.7.2 Electrostatic Precipitators 305 9.7.3 Granular-Bed Filters 305 9.7.4 Wet Scrubbers 306 9.8 Other Contaminant Removal 306 9.8.1 Nitrogen Removal 307 9.8.2 Ammonia Removal 308 9.8.3 Siloxane Removal 308 9.8.4 Alkali Metal Salt Removal 309 9.8.5 Biological Methods 309 9.8.5.1 Biofiltration 310 9.8.5.2 Bioscrubbing 312 9.8.5.3 Bio-Oxidation 313 9.9 Tail Gas Cleaning 313 9.9.1 Claus Process 314 9.9.2 SCOT Process 315 References 316 Part 3: Applications 321 10 Gasification in a Refinery 323 10.1 Introduction 323 10.2 Processes and Feedstocks 324 10.2.1 Gasification of Residua 327 10.2.2 Gasification of Residua with Coal 328 10.2.3 Gasification of Residua with Biomass 328 10.2.4 Gasification of Residua with Waste 330 10.3 Synthetic Fuel Production 332 10.3.1 Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis 334 10.3.2 Fischer Tropsch Liquids 334 10.3.3 Upgrading Fischer-Tropsch Liquids 336 10.3.3.1 Gasoline Production 338 10.3.3.2 Diesel Production 339 10.4 Sabatier-Senderens Process 340 10.4.1 Methanol Production 341 10.4.2 Dimethyl Ether Production 342 10.5 The Future 344 References 347 11 Hydrogen Production 353 11.1 Introduction 353 11.2 Processes Requiring Hydrogen 359 11.2.1 Hydrotreating 360 11.2.2 Hydrocracking 361 11.3 Feedstocks 362 11.4 Process Chemistry 362 11.5 Commercial Processes 364 11.5.1 Autothermal Reforming 365 11.5.2 Combined Reforming 366 11.5.3 Dry Reforming 367 11.5.4 Steam-Methane Reforming 367 11.5.5 Steam-Naphtha Reforming 370 11.6 Catalysts 370 11.6.1 Reforming Catalysts 371 11.6.2 Shift Conversion Catalysts 372 11.6.3 Methanation Catalysts 373 11.7 Hydrogen Purification 373 11.7.1 Cryogenic Separation 374 11.7.2 Desiccant Separation Systems 374 11.7.3 Membrane Separation Systems 374 11.7.4 Pressure Swing Adsorption Separation Systems 375 11.7.5 Wet Scrubbing Systems 376 11.8 Hydrogen Management 376 References 377 12 Fischer-Tropsch Process 381 12.1 Introduction 381 12.2 History and Development of the Process 385 12.3 Synthesis Gas 388 12.4 Production of Synthesis Gas 391 12.4.1 Feedstocks 393 12.4.2 Product Distribution 396 12.5 Process Parameters 397 12.6 Reactors and Catalysts 400 12.6.1 Reactors 400 12.6.2 Catalysts 402 12.7 Products and Product Quality 406 12.7.1 Products 407 12.7.2.1 Gases 407 12.7.1.2 Liquids 407 12.7.2 Product Quality 412 12.7.3 Upgrading Fischer-Tropsch Liquids 415 12.8 Fischer-Tropsch Chemistry 415 12.8.1 Chemical Principles 416 12.8.2 Refining Fischer-Tropsch Products 421 References 423 13 Fuels and Chemicals Production 427 13.1 Introduction 427 13.2 Historical Aspects and Overview 438 13.3 The Petrochemical Industry 440 13.4 Petrochemicals 445 13.4.1 Primary Petrochemicals 446 13.4.2 Products 447 13.4.3 Gaseous Fuels and Chemicals 453 13.4.3.1 Ammonia 453 13.4.3.2 Hydrogen 454 13.4.3.3 Synthetic Natural Gas 455 13.4.4 Liquid Fuels and Chemicals 455 13.4.4.1 Fischer-Tropsch Liquids 455 13.4.4.2 Methanol 456 13.4.4.3 Dimethyl Ether 456 13.4.4.4 Methanol-to-Gasoline and Olefins 456 13.4.4.5 Other Chemicals 457 13.5 The Future 457 References 463 14 Gasification – A Process for Now and the Future 467 14.1 Introduction 467 14.2 Applications and Products 468 14.2.1 Chemicals and Fertilizers 468 14.2.2 Substitute Natural Gas 469 14.2.3 Hydrogen for Crude Oil Refining 470 14.2.4 Transportation Fuels 470 14.2.5 Transportation Fuels from Tar Sand Bitumen 471 14.2.6 Power Generation 472 14.2.7 Waste-to-Energy 473 14.2.8 Biomass to Chemicals and Fuels 473 14.3 Environmental Benefits 475 14.3.1 Carbon Dioxide 476 14.3.2 Air Emissions 476 14.3.3 Solids Generation 477 14.3.4 Water Use 477 14.4 Gasification – The Future 477 14.4.1 The Process 478 14.4.2 Refinery of the Future 479 14.4.3 Economic Aspects 480 14.4.4 Market Outlook 481 14.5 Market Development 482 14.6 Outlook 483 References 485 Coversion Factors 487 Glossary 491 About the Author 519 Index 521

Written by one of the world's foremost petroleum engineers, this is the most comprehensive and up-to-date handbook on gasification technology, covering every aspect of the subject, including energy sources, equipment, processes, applications, and the science of gasifying all types of feedstocks in an effort to reduce the world's carbon footprint. Gasification is one of the most important advancements that has ever occurred in energy production. Using this technology, for example, coal can be gasified into a product that has roughly half the carbon footprint of coal. On a large scale, gasification could be considered a revolutionary development, not only prolonging the life of carbon-based fuels, but making them "greener" and cleaner. As long as much of the world still depends on fossil fuels, gasification will be an environmentally friendlier choice for energy production. But gasification is not just used for fossil fuels. Waste products that would normally be dumped into landfills or otherwise disposed of can be converted into energy through the process of gasification. The same is true of biofeedstocks and other types of feedstocks, thus making another argument for the widespread use of gasification. The Handbook of Gasification Technology covers all aspects of the gasification, in a "one-stop shop," from the basic science of gasification and why it is needed to the energy sources, processes, chemicals, materials, and machinery used in the technology. Whether a veteran engineer or scientist using it as a reference or a professor using it as a textbook, this outstanding new volume is a must-have for any library. This groundbreaking new volume: Lays the groundwork for understanding the need for gasification across all areas of the energy sector and how this technology can reduce our carbon footprintOffers a thorough and comprehensive description of the basic science of gasification technologyThoroughly covers the equipment and processes of gasification, including gasifier types, feedstocks, chemicals, and much moreIs a valuable reference for engineers and scientistsIs the perfect textbook for students studying petroleum, process, or chemical engineering