List of Contributors xii Preface xvi Foreword xvii 1 Industrial Wastewater Contaminants and Their Hazardous Impacts 1 Camila Pesci Pereira, João Pedro Neves Goldenstein, and João Paulo Bassin List of Abbreviations 1 Introduction 2 Toxic Heavy Metals 3 Dyes 5 Oil and Grease 8 Biocides 10 Organic Compounds 12 Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) 15 Conclusion 17 References 19 2 Biosorption and Different Native Sources for Preparation of Biosorbents 23 A.B. Sathya, R. Sivashankar, J. Kanimozhi, R. Devika, and R. Balaji Introduction 23 Biosorption and Its Mechanism 24 Biosorbents 24 Types of Biosorbents 25 Microbial Biomass as Biosorbents 26 Bacterial Biomass 26 Algae as Biosorbents 27 Fungi as Biosorbents 30 Yeasts as Biosorbents 30 Biosorbents Derived from Plant and Animal Waste 31 Biocomposites 33 Alteration of Biosorbents 33 Desorption and Regeneration 34 Cost Evaluation 34 Conclusion 35 References 35 3 Biosorption for Eliminating Inorganic Contaminants (IOCs) from Wastewater 42 Rahul Sharma, Pinki Rani Agrawal, Ravi Kumar, Ittishree, and Gaurav Gupta Introduction: Water Pollution by Inorganic Contaminants (IOCs) 42 Permissible Limits and Sources of IOCs in Water Systems 45 Standard Permissible Limits of Some IOCs in Water 45 Sources of IOCs in Water Systems 46 Natural Sources 46 Anthropogenic Sources 46 IOCs in Water: Environmental and Health Hazards 47 Elimination of IOCs from Wastewater: Recent Strategies and Remediation Techniques 49 Oxidation/Precipitation 50 Ion Exchange 50 Electrokinetics (EK) 50 Membrane Filtration / Reverse Osmosis 50 Sorption Methods 51 Biosorption Methods for Eliminating IOCs from Wastewater 51 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives 54 References 56 4 Biosorption for Eliminating Organic Contaminants from Wastewater 63 Pinki Rani Agrawal, Rahul Sharma, and Abhishek Agrawal Introduction 63 Types of Organic Pollutants and Their Effects on Human Health 64 Organic Dyes 64 Pharmaceutical Waste 66 Agricultural Waste 67 Remediation Methods for Eliminating Organic Contaminants from Wastewater 67 Biosorption as a Remediation Method for Organic Pollutants 67 Mechanism of Biosorption for Adsorption of Organic Pollutants 70 Conclusion and Future Prospects 72 References 73 5 Recent Approaches in the Preparation of Various Biosorbents 79 Rajarathinam Nithya and Arunachalam Thirunavukkarasu Introduction 79 Biosorbents 81 Physical Treatment of Biosorbents 82 Sterilization 82 Comminution 82 Cryodessication 83 Microwave Drying 83 Chemical Treatment of Biosorbents 83 Acid Treatment 83 Alkali Treatment 84 Pyrolysis 84 Solid-Liquid Extraction 85 Immobilization 85 Chemical and Genetic Modifications 86 Challenges in the Utilization of Biosorbents 86 Conclusion 92 References 93 6 Characterization of the Biosorption Process 102 R. Sivashankar, A.B. Sathya, J. Kanimozhi, and B. Deepanraj Introduction 102 Biosorption 103 Characterization Methods 104 Titration Technique 104 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 105 Scanning Electron Microscopy with an Energy Dispersive X-ray Analytical System 107 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy Analysis 109 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis 110 Brunauer-Emmett-Teller Analyzer 111 Thermal Stability Analyzer 113 Conclusion 114 References 115 7 Isotherm and Kinetic Modeling Analysis of Water Decontamination through Biosorption 117 Subramanyam Busetty, Ramprasad Chandrasekaran, and Srihari Vedartham Adsorption Equilibrium Analysis 117 Basics of Adsorption Equilibrium 117 Models of Adsorption Equilibrium 117 Two-Parameter Model 121 Langmuir Isotherm Model (Langmuir, 1918) 121 Freundlich Isotherm Model 122 Three-Parameter Models 124 Four-Parameter Models 126 Five-Parameter Model 126 Adsorption Kinetics 126 Pseudo-First-Order Kinetics 135 Pseudo-Second-Order Kinetics 136 The Elovich Equation 136 Avrami Kinetic Equation 137 Sorption Diffusion Models 137 Calculating the External Mass Transfer Coefficient 138 Intra-Particle Diffusion Control 139 Power Function Equation 140 Bangham’s Equation 140 Boyd Model 141 References 141 8 Dynamic Biosorption for Removal of Wastewater Contaminants 147 Arunachalam Thirunavukkarasu and Rajarathinam Nithya Introduction 147 Fundamentals of Biosorption 148 Biosorbates 148 Metals 148 Organic Compounds 148 Biosorbents 149 Factors Affecting Biosorption 149 Operational Modes of Biosorption 150 Batch Biosorption 151 Dynamic Biosorption 152 Models of Dynamic Biosorption 154 Challenges in Dynamic Biosorption 159 Conclusion 161 References 162 9 Applications of Electrospun Membranes Immobilized with Biosorbents for the Removal of Contaminants 167 Noel Jacob Kaleekkal, Maheswari Purushothaman, and G Nandu Introduction 167 Biosorption and Nanofibers 168 Electrospinning 169 Factors Influencing Electrospun Fibers 170 Advantage of Electrospinning 170 Electrospun Biosorbent Membranes 172 Immobilized Membranes for Heavy Metal Removal 173 Immobilized Membranes for Dye Removal 176 Immobilized Membranes for Removal of Organic Contaminants 176 Conclusion 178 References 178 10 Biosorption of Precious Metals from Wastewater 185 Amit Kumar Tiwari, Jay Mant Jha, and Dan Bahadur Pal Introduction 185 Outline of Treatment Methods 188 Biosorbents 188 Biosorbents of Gold 188 Biosorbents of Silver 189 Biosorbents of PGMs (Palladium and Platinum) 190 Factors Affecting Biosorption 191 pH of the mixture 191 Operational Temperatures 191 Dosage of Biomass 192 Ionic Potency 192 Initial Concentration of the Solute 193 Rate and Period of Agitation 193 Biosorption Equilibrium Models 193 Desorption and Recovery 194 Continuous Biosorption 194 Utilization of Industrial Discharge/Wastes for Biosorption 195 Conclusions 195 References 195 11 Biosorption as a Strategy for the Recovery of Rare Earth Elements 201 João Pedro Neves Goldeinstein and João Paulo Bassin Rare Earth Elements (REEs) 201 Methods to Recover Rare Earth Elements 204 Solvent Extraction 204 Ion Exchange 205 Adsorption 205 Chemical Precipitation 206 Biosorption 206 Biosorption Approach for Recovering Rare Earth Elements 208 Final Considerations 211 References 211 12 Deployment of Used Biosorbents in Environmental Remediation: Prospects and Challenges 213 Shashikant Shivaji Vhatkar, Guru Charan Sahu, and Ramesh Oraon Introduction 213 Mechanism Studies 214 Adsorption 214 Ion-Exchange Resin 214 Complexation 215 Microprecipitation 215 Pyrometallurgical Processes 215 Hydrometallurgical Processes 216 Biosorption 216 Bioaccumulation and Principles 216 Biotransformation 218 Bioleaching 218 Recovery of Metals through Used Biosorbents 218 Recovery of a Single Metal with Used Biosorbents 218 Vanadium (V) 219 Chromium (Cr) 219 Nickel (Ni) 220 Copper (Cu) 220 Zinc (Zn) 221 Zirconium (Zr) 221 Ruthenium (Ru) 221 Palladium (Pd) 222 Cadmium (Cd) 222 Lanthanum (La) 223 Neodymium (Nd) 223 Rhenium (Re) 224 Platinum (Pt) 224 Gold (Au) 224 Lead (Pb) 225 Advances in Multi-Metal Recovery with Used Biosorbents 225 Adsorption Kinetics 229 Current Challenges 230 Conclusion 231 Summary 232 References 232 13 Removal of Hexavalent Chromium from Aqueous Media Using Eco-Friendly and Cost-Effective Biological Methods 246 Veer Singh, Nidhi Singh, Priyanka Yadav, and Vishal Mishra Introduction 246 Sources of Hexavalent Chromium 247 Toxicity of Hexavalent Chromium 247 Removal of Hexavalent Chromium Ions 248 Biosorption 250 Bioaccumulation 252 Biological Reduction of Hexavalent Chromium 255 Adsorption Kinetic Studies 259 Pseudo-First-Order Kinetics 259 Pseudo-Second-Order Kinetics 259 Adsorption Isotherm Studies 260 Langmuir Isotherm 260 Freundlich Isotherm 260 Temkin Isotherm 260 D-R Isotherm 261 Thermodynamics Studies 261 Conclusion 262 Acknowledgments 262 References 262 14 Biosorption of Arsenic from Wastewater 269 Bidhan Chandra Ruidas and Dan Bahadur Pal Introduction 269 Sources of Arsenic in Groundwater Pollution 270 Effect of Arsenic on the Environment and Human Health 270 Methods for Removing Arsenic from Wastewater 271 Oxidation 271 Coagulation and Flocculation 271 Adsorption 272 Membrane Filtration 272 Biosorption 272 Principles of Biosorption 273 Biosorption Sites 273 Biosorption Mechanisms 274 Complexation 274 Chelation 274 Ion Exchange 274 Precipitation 275 Biosorption Isotherms 275 Biosorption Kinetics Model Analysis 276 Biosorption of Arsenic from Wastewater 277 Summary 278 Acknowledgments 278 References 278 Index 285

Pollution due to various anthropogenic activities continues to increase. In terms of water pollutants, organic and inorganic pollutants are the most problematic. Although several measures have been proposed and implemented to prevent or reduce contamination, their increased concentration in water bodies has created serious concerns. Over the years, the problem has been aggravated by industrialization, urbanization and the exploitation of natural resources. The direct discharge of wastewater contaminants and their geographical mobilization have caused an increase in concentration in ground, surface, fluvial and residual waters. Extensive information about detection and disposal methods is needed in order to develop technological solutions for a ­variety of environments, both urban and rural. This book provides up-to-date information on wastewater contaminants, aimed at researchers, engineers and technologists working in this field. Conventional physicochemical techniques used to remove contaminants from wastewater include ion exchange, precipitation, degradation, coagulation, coating, membrane processes and adsorption. However, these applications have technological and economic limitations, and involve the release of large amounts of chemical reagents and by-products that are themselves difficult to remove. Biosorption - the use of organically generated material as an adsorbent – is attracting new research and scholarship. Thermally-treated calcined biomaterials may be treated to remove heavy metals from wastewater. To ensure the elimination of these contaminants, existing solutions must be integrated with intelligent biosorption functions. Biosorption for Wastewater Contaminants will find an appreciative audience among academics and postgraduates working in the fields of environmental biotechnology, environmental engineering, wastewater treatment technology and environmental chemistry.