Foreword Jim and Susan Jerger Foreword by Kevin J Munro, PhD Preface Acknowledgements Reviewers About the Authors Section A: Research Methods in Audiology Chapter 1. The Research Process Learning Outcomes The Role of Research within Audiology Defining Research Usual Practice Service Evaluation Clinical Audit Overview of the Research Process Stage 1: Conceiving the Study Reviewing the Existing Literature Developing the Scope and Aim of the Study Identifying and Formulating Research Questions Creating Hypotheses Stage 2: Designing the Study Research Variables Experimental versus Non-Experimental Research Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Research Methodologies Research Compliance Stage 3: Data Collection Data Collection Format Type and Amount of Data Collected Data Collection Setting Data Management Stage 4: Analyzing Data and Drawing Conclusions Inspecting the Data for Errors Statistical Analysis Drawing Conclusions Stage 5: Dissemination Translating Research into Clinical Practice The Research Proposal The Research Team Feasibility of Research Project Outlining the Resources Required Planning the Time Scale Considerations for Recruiting and Maintaining Participants Preregistration of Studies Key Points Review Questions References Chapter 2. Research Compliance Learning Outcomes Research Compliance Ethical Considerations for Human and Animal Research Ethical Codes Then Nuremberg Code The Declaration of Helsinki The Belmont Report Ethical Principles Good Clinical Practice Research Principles Outlined by Professional Associations Data Protection Confidentiality and Privacy The European General Data Protection Act (GDPR) The United States Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) Research with Vulnerable Groups Informed Consent Ways of Providing the Necessary Informed Consent Capacity to Consent Research Involving Animals The Ethical Application Process Applying for Ethical Approval Ethical Application in Settings with Ethical Review Boards Ethical Applications in Independent Settings Research Ethics for International Research Research Integrity Research Fudging Conflict of Interest Credit for Intellectual Effort Types of Copyright License Active Partnerships to Increase Research Quality and Compliance Patient and Public Involvement in Research Reporting PPI Involvement in Academic Publications Key Points Review Questions References Chapter 3. Research Methods Learning Outcomes Defining Scientific Methods Scientific Theory, Law and Models Scientific Theory Scientific Law Scientific Model History and Philosophy of Science History of Science Philosophy of Science Naive Realism Anti-realism Critical Realism Role of Theory in Research Deductive versus Inductive Inference Research Hierarchy: Methodology, Method, and Design Types of Research Empirical versus Non-empirical Research Basic versus Applied Research Animal versus Human Research Descriptive versus Analytical Research Exploratory versus Confirmatory Research Feasibility versus Pilot Studies Prospective versus Retrospective Research Quantitative versus Qualitative Research Observational versus Experimental Research Laboratory versus Field Research Cross-sectional versus Longitudinal Research Common Ways of Categorizing Research Studies Research Methodology Quantitative Research Variable Qualitative Research Difference and Opinion Between Quantitative and Qualitative Research Mixed-Methods Research Common Research Strategies Used in Audiology Key Points Review Questions References Chapter 4. Research Design Learning Outcomes Introduction Research Designs Cross-sectional Design Repeated Cross-sectional Design Cohort Design Case-Control Design Experimental Design Pre-, Quasi-, and True Experimental Designs A Randomized Controlled Trial Parallel-group versus Cross-over Experimental Designs Treatment Efficacy and Effectiveness Trials Considerations When Choosing Research Designs Criteria for Quality in Quantitative Research Validity Reliability Generalizability Evaluating Clinical Research Quality Analysis of Studies and Level of Evidence Nature of Clinical Data Clinical Practice Guidelines Rigor and Reproducibility in Scientific Research The Reproducibility Crisis in Research Best Evidence versus Best Available Evidence Minimizing Bias in Research Key Points Review Questions References Chapter 5. Variables, Sampling and Sample Size Learning Outcomes Introduction Variables in Empirical Research Types of Variables Independent Variable Dependent Variable Extraneous Variable Confounding Variable Demographic Variable Environmental Variable Examples of Different Variables in a Study Variables During Data Collection and Analysis Levels of Measurement Populations and Samples Parameters versus Statistics Sample Characteristics Sampling Methods Probability Sampling Simple Random Sampling Systematic Random Sampling Stratified Random Sampling Cluster Sampling Non-probability Sampling Convenience Sampling Snowball Sampling Consecutive Sampling Quota Sampling Self-selection Sampling Purposive Sampling Theoretical Sampling Challenges in Implementing Probability Sampling Methods Sampling Bias Sample Size Sampling Error Power Analysis Sample Size Estimation Post-hoc Power Analysis Challenges in Recruiting Study Participants Key Points Review Questions References Chapter 6. Analyzing and Interpreting Quantitative Data Learning Outcomes Introduction An Overview of Analyzing and Interpreting Quantitative Data Preparing Data for Analysis Error Checking and Outliers Missing Data Describing the Data Measures of Central Tendency Mean Median Mode Measures of Variability Range Variance Standard Deviation Z-Scores Standard Error Quartiles Describing the Distribution Normal Distribution Skewness and Kurtosis Central Limit Theorem Data Transformation Selecting Appropriate Statistical Tests Assumptions Required for Parametric Testing Assumptions of Normality Homogeneity of Variance Considerations When Using Parametric Statistics Considerations When Using Non-Parametric Statistics Quantitative Data Analysis Hypothesis Testing Specifying the Hypotheses Probability Values (P-value) One- or Two-Tailed Tests Degrees of Freedom Alternative or Complementary Approaches to Significance Testing Effect Size Calculations Confidence Interval and Margin of Error Clinical Significance Bayesian Analysis Testing Differences Between Two Means T-test Types of t-tests Comparing Groups Analysis of Variance Main Effects and Interaction Effects Types of Analysis of Variance Analysis of Covariance Post-hoc Testing Examining Relationships Between Variables Correlation Analysis The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient Predicting and Assessing the Strength of the Relationship Between Variables Regression Analysis Non-Parametric Regression Models Grouping Variables Factor Analysis Cluster Analysis Analyzing the Performance of Diagnostic Tests Reporting Statistical Test Results Reporting the Outcome of Statistical Analysis Visual Representation of the Data Common Pitfalls When Conducting and Reporting Statistics Interpreting Statistical Findings Key Points Review Questions References Chapter 7. Qualitative Research Methods Learning Outcomes Scope and Context of Qualitative Research Qualitative Research Traditions Grounded Theory Phenomenology Ethnography Ethnomethodology Action Research Narrative Research Case Study Sampling and Recruiting Participants Sampling Methods Convenience Sampling Snowball Sampling Purposive Sampling Maximum Variation Sampling Theoretical Sampling Determining Sampling Method Sampling Adequacy Other Considerations when Recruiting Participants Data Collection Methods and Settings Data Collection Methods Interviews Focus Groups Questionnaires Observations Document Analysis Employing Multiple Data Collection Methods Data Collection Settings Checking Accuracy Data Analysis Methods Two Main Approaches to Qualitative Data Analysis Data Analysis Steps Transcribing Data Becoming Familiar with the Data Data Organization Generating Codes Data Interpretation and Pattern Identification Tying Field Data to Research Objective(s) and Drawing Verifiable Conclusions Common Qualitative Data Analysis Methods Descriptive Analysis Content Analysis Thematic Analysis Constant Comparative Method Conversation Analysis Discourse Analysis Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis Data Saturation and Trustworthiness Use of Qualitative Data Analysis Software Programs Role of the Researcher Emic or Etic Research Perspectives Theoretical Orientation and Methodological Choices Training and Experience Disciplined Subjectivity Safeguarding Participant Anonymity Acknowledging the Role of a Researcher Reporting Qualitative Research Thick Description of the Data Interpretive Themes Anonymity of Participants Visual Presentation of the Data Scientific Rigor in Qualitative Research Reflexivity Validity Credibility Dependability Confirmability and Audit Trail Transferability Key Points Review Questions References Chapter 8. Mixed-Methods Research Learning Outcomes Introduction Overview of Mixed-Methods Research Characteristics of Mixed-Method Research Comparing Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed-Methods Research Advantages and Challenges of Mixed-Method Research Conducting Mixed Methods Research Identifying the Rationale for MMR Selecting the Study Design within MMR Identifying the Sampling Strategy Data Collection Data Analysis Data Interferences Examples of Mixed Method Studies in Audiology Big Data Research Using Mixed-Methods Evaluating Mixed-Method Research Key Points Review Questions References Chapter 9. Survey Research Learning Outcomes Defining Survey Research Advantages and Limitations of Survey Research Purposes of Surveys Gathering Opinions, Beliefs, and Feelings Diagnostic Measure Outcome Measure Epidemiological Studies Multi-purpose Surveys Study Designs in Survey Research Cross-sectional Surveys Repeated Cross-sectional Surveys Panel Surveys Survey Experiments Sampling and Participant Recruitment Sampling Methods Sample Size Adequacy Response Rate Data Collection Methods Types of Surveys Questionnaires Interviews Mixed Mode Surveys Survey Administration Methods Written Survey Oral Survey Paper and Pencil versus Electronic Survey First-hand versus Third-party Administration Types of Questions Open-ended Questions Closed-ended Questions Mixture of Open-ended and Closed-ended Questions Response Options Rating versus Ranking Open Response Formats Dichotomous Responses Likert Response Scales Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) Missing Data and Erroneous Data The Importance of Anonymity Considerations for Designing, Adapting, Validating or Choosing a Questionnaire Designing a Questionnaire Conceptual Clarity Comprehensibility Wording of Questions Response Formats and Scoring Question Sequence Administration Format Keep Analysis in Mind Checking Survey Quality Pre-testing Translation and Adaptation of Questionnaires Validating a Questionnaire Validity Reliability Responsiveness Interpretability Floor and Ceiling Effect Choosing a Questionnaire Core Outcome Set (COS) Approaches to Survey Data Analyses Preparing Data for the Analysis Types of Data Data Structure Choosing a Data Analysis Method Analysis of Likert-scale Responses Data Interpretation Describing Phenomenon Correlation versus Causality Reported Behavior versus Actual Behavior Adequacy of Psychometric Properties Sources of Bias in Survey Research Key Points Review Questions References Section B. Evidence-Based Practice Chapter 10. Evidence-Based Practice Learning Outcomes Healthcare Decision Making Types of Knowledge Traditional Knowledge Authority Knowledge Personal Knowledge Trial and Error Knowledge Research-Based Knowledge Hierarchy of Knowledge Types Evidence-Based Practice (EBP) A Brief History of EBP Definitions Benefits and Risks of EBP EBP Steps Step 1 - Developing and Defining Clinical Questions Step 2 - Search for the Best Available Research Evidence Step 3 -Synthesize the Evidence Step 4 - Implement the Evidence Step 5 - Evaluate the Outcomes Implementation Issues for EBP in Clinical Practice Clinical Practice Guidelines (CPGs) Acceptance and Adherence Issues Examples of Challenges for EBP Implementation Example 1 - Lack of Organizational Support Example 2 - Healthcare Service Reimbursement Example 3 - Overabundance of Available Evidence Example 4 - Misuse of the Non-Peer Reviewed Evidence Common Myths and Misconceptions about EBP Evaluating Research for EBP The Future of EBP Key Points Review Questions References Chapter 11. Systematic Literature Review and Meta-analysis Learning Outcomes Research Reviews in Clinical Practice Types of Reviews Narrative (or Descriptive) Review Scoping Review Systematic Review Review of Reviews Systematic Review Process Requirements for a Systematic Review Identifying a Research Area Establishing the Rationale for Reviews Formulating Research Questions Searching and Appraising Previous Reviews Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP) Checklist for Systematic Reviews Assessing Methodological Quality of Systematic Review (AMSTER) Risk of Bias Assessment Tool for Systematic Reviews (ROBIS) Scoping Search Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria Review Registration Developing the Search Strategy Information Sources Keyword Selection Performing the Search and Selecting Appropriate Papers Referencing Management Data Extraction Outcomes and Prioritization Biases Quality Assessment Assessment of Methodological Quality Assessment of Risk of Bias Determining Level of Evidence Data Synthesis Descriptive Synthesis Narrative Synthesis Thematic Synthesis Quantitative Synthesis (Meta-analysis) Reporting the Review Outcomes Performing a Meta-analysis Use of Software in Meta-analysis Criteria for Performing a Quantitative Synthesis Assessing Appropriateness of Doing a Meta-analysis Principle 1: Power Analysis Principle 2: Examination of Confidence Interval Width Principle 3: Assessment of Heterogeneity Publication Bias Summary Measures Statistical Models Odds or Risk Ratios Estimating Effect Sizes Standardization and Weighting Studies Subgroup Analysis Sensitivity Analysis Meta-regression Reporting Guidelines for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis Key Points Review Questions References Section C. Conducting and Disseminating Research Chapter 12. Student-Led Research Projects Learning Outcomes Importance of Student-Led Research Projects Benefits of Student-Lead Research Elements of Student-Led Research Selecting the Topic Selecting a Mentor and Committee Members Conducting a Literature Review Access to Full-Text Inter-Library Loan Developing the Research Proposal Identifying the Scope of the Research Defining the Research Questions Writing the Research Proposal Gaining the Necessary Approvals Involving Service Users in Research Gathering the Research Data Data Analysis and Drawing Appropriate Conclusions Writing and Reporting the Research Findings Effective Planning of the Research Creating a Realistic Research Plan Dealing with Ongoing Challenges Time Management Disseminating the Research Outcomes Examples of Published Student-Led Projects in Audiology Key Points Review Questions References Chapter 13. Disseminating Research Findings Learning Outcomes Importance of Scientific Findings-Dissemination Planning Dissemination of Scientific Findings Presenting Research Findings at Professional Conferences Scientific Publications Scientific Truth Peer-Reviewed Publications Predatory "Peer Reviewed" Publications Publishing Negative Results Non-Peer Reviewed Publications Important Considerations When Choosing the Journal Scope of the Journal Target Audience Manuscript Types and Word Limits Impact Factor Conflict of Interest Copyright Assignment Open Access Publication Charges Tips for Successful Publishing Invest Enough Time in the Process Choose the Most Appropriate Journal Follow the Journal Submission Guidelines Use Standard Guidelines for Scientific Reporting Importance of the Cover Letter Components of the Manuscript More on the Abstract Referencing Professional Copy Editing Authorship Order and Honorary Authorship Addressing Reviewers' Concerns Strategies to Enhance Reach and Impact of Research Reviewing Others Research Work Benefits of Peer-Reviewing Others Work How to Conduct Peer-Review of Scientific Work Key Points Review Questions References Index