What we now call “Judaism” is the religion of the rabbis; it is rooted in scripture—the Hebrew Scriptures—but it is not to be identified with Old Testament theology. Judaism in its many manifestations has continued to evolve, rereading its ancient texts and extracting new meaning, while addressing contemporary issues such as the status of women and attitudes to sexual orientation. History, or rather our perception of it, has changed substantially. Previously unknown documents and artefacts have surfaced, while scholars have proposed far-reaching changes to the way we read and evaluate ancient texts. Nowadays, we have a more nuanced understanding of how to evaluate statements in the Talmud and other rabbinic writings, and we are better able to contextualize them not only in Greco-Roman antiquity but also in the Sasanian environment in which the Babylonian Talmud was formed. Historical Dictionary of Judaism, Fourth Edition contains a chronology, an introduction, and an extensive bibliography. The dictionary section has more than 800 cross-referenced entries on on important personalities in Jewish religious history, including biblical personalities with an emphasis on how they are understood in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic tradition. This book is an excellent access point for students, researchers, and anyone wanting to know more about Judaism.