1. Introduction.- 2. Sources and methods.- 2.1. Written sources - archival and literature surveys.- 2.2. Maps and graphical depictions.- 2.3. Field surveys.- 2.4. Oral sources.- 2.5. Palaeoecological studies by other authors.- 3. Traditions of a royal forest (until 1795).- 3.1. The historical background: BPF as a royal hunting ground, access rights, types of use (haymaking, beekeeping), shifts in management in the 18th century, fall of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.- 3.2. Material imprints – the environmental impact of the period: system of conservation, creation of cultural landscapes due to centuries-long traditional use of forest resources (landscape of access area, landscape of a hunting garden), evolution of pure-pine stands as a result of centuries of fire use, establishment of the European bison protection and support system.- 3.3. Cultural heritage – role of BPF  among royal forests, traditional knowledge – variety of uses for Scots pine and lime trees.- 3.4. View fromoutside: the recognition of the forest (BPF in the works of naturalists, artists, travellers until the end of the 18th century).- Boxes: 1. Biographical box: J. E. Gilibert’s studies of BPF’s animals.- 2. Art/literature box: J.H. Muntz’s depiction of an arboreal apiary.- 3. Species/processes/types of forest box: Cultural landscapes.- 4. The beginning of the imperial period (1796-1831).- 4.1. The historical background: BPF devoid of protection until 1802, return to the Polish system of management and its fall after the Polish national uprising of 1831.- 4.2. Material imprints – the environmental impact of the period: continuation of the 18th century trends with first attempts at drawing new, “scientifically” based management plans.- 4.3. Cultural heritage – BPF as a source of imperial gifts, Białowieża’s foresters role in the national uprising, traditional knowledge of the forest (local names of forest habitats that became the source of 20th century nomenclature).- 4.4. View from outside: the recognition of the forest (BPF in the works of naturalists, artists, travellers until 1831).- Boxes: 1. Biographical box: Julius Brincken’s visits to BPF.- 2. Art/literature box: Jakub Sokolowski’s depictions of the forest and its dwellers.- 3. Species/processes/types of forest box: European bison –primeval beast unintentionally supported by traditional use.- 5. Mixed management goals (1832-1863).- 5.1. The historical background: continuous attempts of the Russian administration at forest taxation, failed commercial timber production attempts, the first tsar’s hunt in BPF.- 5.2. Material imprints – wasted timber or remnants of past traditional forest use – culturally modified trees in BPF.- 5.3. Cultural heritage – the first Russian taxation of BPF, the first known management plan; world’s first successful experiments with creating bison-cattle hybrids conducted by Leopold Walicki; official and unofficial views on the first tsar’s hunt.- 5.4. View from outside: the recognitionof the forest (BPF in the works of naturalists, artists, travellers until 1863).- Boxes: 1. Biographical box: Dmitrii Dolmatov’s futuristic plans of BPF’s management.- 2. Art/literature box: Michaly Zichy in the imperial forest.- 3. Species/processes/types of forest box: Bison-cattle hybrids.- 6: The restoration period (1864-1888).- 6.1. The historical background: shift in the management towards creation of a large game reserve connected with prohibition of several traditional ways of forest use.- 6.2. Material imprints – European bison from BPF in the collections of museums, universities and curiosity chambers around the world.- 6.3. Cultural heritage – beekeepers of BPF.- 6.4. View from outside: the recognition of the forest (BPF in the works of naturalists, artists, travellers until 1888).- Boxes: 1. Biographical box: Nobel prize winner Henryk Sienkiewicz in BPF.- 2. Art/literature box: Excursions to BPF in the literature of the second half of the 19th century.- 3. Species/processes/types of forest box: Pine tree as a living archive of historical events.- 7: Tsars’ private hunting ground (1888-1915).- 7.1. The historical background: BPF as tsars’ private property.- 7.2. Material imprints – promoting ungulates and exterminating carnivores – unnatural selection; imperial palace in Białowieża.- 7.3. Cultural heritage – local peasants’ legal fight with the administration of the forest.- 7.4. View from outside: the recognition of the forest (BPF in the works of naturalists, artists, travellers until 1915).- Boxes: 1. Biographical box: Józef Neverly – the last great game manager of the imperial forest.- 2. Art/literature box: E. P. Wishniakov’s photographical journey through BPF.- 3. Species/processes/types of forest box: impact of cattle pasturing inside BPF.- 8. The end of the long 19th century.- 8.1. State of the forest on the brink of WWI.- 8.2. Long-lasting impact of BPF management, protection and exploitation in the long 19th century.- 8.3. Cultural heritage of the Russian Imperial Forest.- 8.4. BPF in the international perspective – already established as a pristine forest (efforts to preserve the central part of the forest during massive German exploitation of WWI).- 9. Conclusions - learning the past to understand the future of BPF.- 9.1. Primeval, natural, ancient – what does it mean in the context of BPF’s history.- 9.2. Research needs and conservation goals.- 9.3. Lessons from Europe’s best preserved lowland forest.

Understanding the current state and dynamics of any forest is impossible without recognizing its history. Białowieża Primeval Forest (BPF), located on the border between Poland and Belarus, is one of the best preserved European lowland forests and a subject of myriads of works focusing on countless aspects of its biology, ecology, and management. After few centuries (14th-18th) of protection as a royal forest and game reserve of Polish kings and Lithuanian grand dukes, the forest fell under the rule of Russian state and later (since 1888) - under personal ownership of Russian tsars. During the long 19th century many of “older” ways of multi-functional utilisation of the forest (haymaking, bee-keeping, cattle pasturing, etc.) underwent changes in accordance with the requirements of the new administration and principles of “rational” forestry. They were put under tighter control, or even fell under the ban. However, attempts at introducing the “rational” forestry in the last refugium ofEuropean bison were hindered by numerous obstacles. The entire long 19th century (in this case 1795-1915) in the history of BPF is a story of struggle between “traditional” use, new administrative trends in forest and game management and the rising perception of the primeval or pristine forest.The book shows the historical background and the outcome of this struggle: BPF’s history in the long 19th century focusing on tracking all cultural imprints, both material (cultural landscapes, introduced alien species, human-induced processes) and immaterial(traditional knowledge of forest and use of forest resources, the political and cultural significance of the forest, scientific research) that shaped the state and picture of one of the last truly wild forests of Europe.

The first comprehensive English-language monograph of the history of one of the most famous ancient forests in Europe Bialowieza is perhaps the best renown natural area of Europe, it was considered one of the last really natural forests untouched by the man, the only place in Europe where the European bison is still freely grazing and reproducing. This until recent research findings showed that the place has been intensively used by the man at least since the early middle age: cutting, planting, fires, etc. The research, as a paper ,has already been presented in several international conferences, generating interesting debate about the real naturalness of the European Landscape, a theme already treated by several authors, as Franz Vera and perfectly in line with the series The book for itself is basically a research book, but telling a story that can be read and understood by a wide audience of scholars from many different disciplines