The need for a comprehensive survey-type exposition on formal languages and related mainstream areas of computer science has been evident for some years. the book Formal Languages by the second­ mentioned editor appeared, it was still quite feasible to write a comprehensive book with that title and include also topics of current research interest.

of Volume 3.- 1. Tree Languages.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Trees and terms.- 3. Algebraic preliminaries.- 4. Term rewriting systems.- 5. Finite tree recognizers.- 6. Regular tree grammars.- 7. Tree language operations and closure properties of Rec.- 8. Local tree languages.- 9. A Kleene theorem for tree languages.- 10. Regular tree systems.- 11. Algebraic characterizations of recognizability.- 12. Monadic second-order logic and regular tree languages.- 13. Families of special regular tree languages.- 14. The yield-function and context-free languages.- 15. Context-free tree grammars and pushdown tree recognizers.- 16. Tree transformations and tree transducers.- 17. Composition and decomposition of tree transformations.- 18. Tree transducers with regular look-ahead.- 19. Generalized syntax directed translations.- 20. Surface tree languages.- 21. The hierarchies of surface tree languages and transformational languages.- 22. Some further topics.- References.- 2. Tree-Adjoining Grammars.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Tree-adjoining grammars.- 3. Lexicalized grammars.- 4. ‘Lexicalization’ of CFGs.- 5. Closure of TAGs under lexicalization.- 6. Summary of lexicalization.- 7. Embedded push-down automaton (EPDA).- 8. Linguistic relevance.- 9. Some variants of TAGs.- 10. Parsing lexicalized tree-adjoining grammars (LTAG).- 11 Summary.- References.- 3. Context-Free Graph Grammars.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Node and edge replacement.- 3. Hyperedge replacement grammars.- 4. Node replacement grammars.- 5. Monadic second order logic.- 6. Graph grammars generating strings and trees.- 7. Tree grammars generating graphs.- References.- 4. Two-Dimensional Languages.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Preliminaries.- 3. Regular expressions.- 4. Automata.- 5. Grammars.- 6. Logic formulas.- 7. Tiling systems.- 8.Equivalence theorems.- 9. Properties of recognizable languages.- 10. Recognizable functions.- 11. Beyond finite state recognizability.- References.- 5. Basics of Term Rewriting.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Terms.- 3. Church—Rosser properties.- 4. Orderings.- 5. Completion.- 6. Rewriting modulo a relation.- 7. Sundries.- References and further reading.- 6. ?-Languages.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Topology for languages and ?-languages.- 3. The Chomsky hierarchy of ?-languages.- 4. Languages and ?-languages.- 5. Wagner’s hierarchy.- References.- 7. Languages, Automata, and Logic.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Models and formulas.- 3. Automata and MSO-logic on finite words and trees.- 4. First-order definability.- 5. Automata and MSO-logic on infinite words.- 6. Automata and MSO-logic on infinite trees.- References.- 8. Partial Commutation and Traces.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Free partially commutative monoids.- 3. Combinatorial properties.- 4. Recognizable trace languages.- 5. Rational trace languages.- 6. Dependence graphs and logic.- 7. Asynchronous automata.- 8. Infinite traces.- References.- 9. Visual Models of Plant Development.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Developmental models of plant architecture.- 3. Formal description of branching structures.- 4. Fundamentals of modeling using L-systems.- 5. Random factors in development.- 6. Life, death, and reproduction.- 7. Development controlled by endogenous mechanisms.- 8. Development controlled by exogenous mechanisms.- 9. Conclusions.- 10. Acknowledgements.- References.- 10. Digital Images and Formal Languages.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Black and white images and finite automata.- 3. Grayscale images and WFA.- 4. Weighted finite transducers.- 5. Examples of WFT.- References.

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